Targeted gene delivery to non-phagocytic mammalian cells via bacterially derived intact minicells

ABSTRACT

A method of targeting bacterially-derived, intact minicells to specific, non-phagocytic mammalian cells employs bispecific ligands to deliver nucleic acids efficiently to the mammalian cells. Bispecific ligands, comprising (i) a first arm that carries specificity for a bacterially-derived minicell surface structure and (ii) a second arm that carries specificity for a non-phagocytic mammalian cell surface receptor are useful for targeting minicells to specific, non-phagocytic mammalian cells and causing endocytosis of minicells by non-phagocytic cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/820,464, filed Aug. 6, 2015, which is a divisional of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/581,990, filed Feb. 26, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No.9,169,495, which is the U.S. National Stage of International PatentApplication No. PCT/IB2004/004406, filed Dec. 8, 2004, which claims thebenefit of priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/527,764, filed Dec. 9, 2003, the disclosures of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods and compositions for targetingbacterial minicell vectors to non-phagocytic host cells, particularlybut not exclusively in the context of gene therapy. The inventionemploys bispecific molecules that specifically bind to both a minicellsurface structure and a host cell surface structure, such as a receptor.By mediating an interaction between the minicell vectors andnon-phagocytic host cells, the bispecific ligands enable targeteddelivery of oligonucleotides and polynucleotides to the host cells.

The objective of gene therapy is to insert one or more foreign genesinto the cells of an organism to shut down a gene, to replace adefective gene, or to express a gene product that provides aprophylactic or therapeutic effect. Recent advances in gene therapy havehighlighted a variety of methods for introducing foreign genes into thegenome of recipient mammals. See Romano et al. 1998, 1999; Balicki andBeutler, 2002; Wadhwa et al., 2002; and Thomas et al., 2003. Theseadvances relate to using viral vectors, both human and non-human, andnon-viral vectors, such as DNA-liposome complexes.

While each vector system has its advantages, each also has significantdrawbacks that have limited any clinical application. In particular,viral vectors pose serious safety concerns, including recombination withwild-type viruses, insertional and oncogenic potential, intrinsictoxicity of animal virus vectors to mammalian cells, virus-inducedimmunosuppression, reversion to virulence of attenuated viruses, andadverse reactions such as an inflammatory response caused by existingimmunity. Viral vectors also present practical problems, such asdifficulties in recombinant virus manufacture and distribution, lowstability, and limited capacity of the vectors to carry large amounts ofexogenous DNA. Non-viral vectors have the drawbacks of generally beingless efficient at gene delivery.

Addressing these drawbacks, PCT/IB02/04632 described recombinant, intactminicells that contain therapeutic nucleic acid molecules. Suchminicells are effective vectors for delivering oligonucleotides andpolynucleotides to host cells in vitro and in vivo. PCT/IB02/04632demonstrated, for example, that recombinant minicells carrying mammaliangene expression plasmids could be delivered to phagocytic cells, such asmacrophages, and to non-phagocytic cells, illustrated by human breastcancer cells. The application also showed that intraperitonealadministration of the recombinant minicells resulted in recombinantplasmid delivery to phagocytic cells of the immune system, and that aserum antibody response to the encoded protein could be elicited.

While the efficiency of gene delivery to phagocytic cells via minicellsis high (40-60%), the efficiency of gene delivery to non-phagocyticcells heretofore has been comparatively low (3% to 5%). This would beexpected severely to limit clinical applications, because many potentialindications for gene therapy involve endothelial and othernon-phagocytic cells. Most cancers, for instance, are not of phagocyticcells, and one would not expect that vectors lacking cell- ororgan-specificity could effectively be employed for treating suchcancers.

A similar lack of specificity also has hindered the application ofnon-minicell vectors, and various approaches are under development toaddress this problem. See Wickham, 2003. One approach makes use of thereceptor-mediated endocytosis (RME) system, present in many cell types,and entails development of a diverse set of targeting ligands. In thisapproach, cell-specificity is imparted to the vector by linking it to aligand that targets a specific cell surface receptor or marker.Following the specific binding, target cell RME system is activated andthe vector/receptor complex is internalized and digested, with some ofthe DNA payload being transported to the nucleus for gene expression.Some cell receptors may be able to facilitate vector uptake into thecytoplasm directly across the plasma membrane (Fernandez and Bailey,1998; Phelan et al., 1998; Rojas et al., 1998), but the most commonroute for receptor-mediated uptake of macromolecular moieties is theendocytic-trafficking pathway (Conner and Schmid, 2003).

Several challenges exist regarding targeted gene delivery tonon-phagocytic mammalian cells: (i) breaching the mammalian cell plasmamembrane; (ii) exploiting a mechanism of delivery vectorinternalization; (iii) selecting and understanding the nature oftargeting ligands used to target specific mammalian cell surfacereceptors; (iv) achieving intracellular breakdown of the delivery vectorwithout complete degradation of payload DNA; and (v) obtaining releaseand transport of payload DNA to the mammalian cell cytoplasm or nucleus.These challenges vary somewhat with each gene delivery vector. Despiteintensive research in the field, detailed knowledge of the biologicalprocesses involved still is rudimentary.

Ligand-based targeting of bacterial cells or any particles of bacterialorigin to non-phagocytic cells has not been reported, probably because(a) only live bacterial intracellular pathogens can gain entry intonon-phagocytic cells, though this is achieved by an active invasionprocess (i.e., entry into non-phagocytic cells is thought to be anactive invasion process that requires a multicomponent energy drivenprocess performed by live bacterial pathogens) and (b) active cellularinvasion would override a passive process such as ligand-based receptormediated endocytosis. Thus, killed bacterial cells would not engage inactive cell invasion, and live bacterial cells would not be directed,contrary to their natural tropism, toward desired non-phagocytic cells.Even if ligand-based targeting was employed to enable endocytosis ofkilled bacterial cells or non-living particles of bacterial origin, themethod would not be expected to be effective for gene delivery. Rather,it would be expected that endosomes would degrade the non-living cellsor particles, making them ineffective as gene delivery vectors. In thatregard, it currently is thought that only live facultative intracellularpathogenic bacteria can express proteins that allow escape from theendosomal membrane.

To date, no proven methodology exists for effectively targetingbacterial minicell vectors to non-phagocytic mammalian host cells,thereby to deliver a gene payload. Although a variety of vectortargeting technologies are known, simply adopting any one of them doesnot predictably result in a successful, minicell-targeted gene delivery.This is due to the range of biological factors, unique for each genedelivery vector, that can influence targeted gene delivery.

Therefore, a need exists for a method of specifically targetingbacterial minicell vectors to non-phagocytic mammalian cells.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

To address these and other needs, the present invention provides, inaccordance with one aspect, a targeted gene delivery method thatcomprises bringing bispecific ligands into contact with (i) bacteriallyderived minicells that contain a therapeutic nucleic acid sequence and(ii) non-phagocytic mammalian cells. The ligands have specificity forboth a surface component on the minicells and a surface component on thenon-phagocytic mammalian cells. As a result, the minicells are engulfedby the mammalian cells, which then produce an expression product of thetherapeutic nucleic acid sequence. Contact between the minicells and themammalian cells may be in vitro or in vivo.

The invention also provides bispecific ligands useful for targetingminicell vectors to non-phagocytic mammalian host cells. The bispecificligand may be polypeptide or carbohydrate, and may comprise an antibodyor antibody fragment. In preferred embodiments, the bispecific ligandhas a first arm that carries specificity for a bacterial minicellsurface structure and a second arm that carries specificity for anon-phagocytic mammalian cell surface structure. A desirable minicellsurface structure for ligand binding is an O-polysaccharide component ofa lipopolysaccharide. Desirable mammalian cell surface structures forligand binding are receptors, preferably those capable of activatingreceptor-mediated endocytosis.

In another aspect, the invention provides a composition comprising (i)bacterially derived minicells that contain a therapeutic nucleic acidand (ii) bispecific ligands that are capable of binding to a surfacecomponent of the minicells and a surface component of a non-phagocyticmammalian cell.

In still another aspect, the invention provides for the use ofbacterially derived minicells that contain a therapeutic nucleic acidand a bispecific ligand in the preparation of a medicament for use in amethod of treating a disease or modifying a trait by administration ofthe medicament to a cell, tissue, or organ. Such medicaments are usefulto treat various conditions and diseases by increasing expression orfunction of a desired protein, or by inhibiting expression or functionof a target protein. The disease to be treated in this context may be acancer, for example, or an acquired disease, such as AIDS, pneumonia,emphysema, or a condition engendered by an inborn error of metabolism,such as cystic fibrosis. Alternatively, the treatment may affect atrait, such as fertility, or an immune response associated with anallergen or an infectious agent.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1F shows efficient internalization of human androgenreceptor-targeted recombinant minicells, in contrast to non-targetedminicells, into human prostate carcinoma LNCaP cells. The procedureswere performed as described in Example 1 and the results were visualizedby confocal microscopy. Immunofluorescence staining was performed forall shown images with anti-S. typhimurium LPS specific monoclonalantibody, followed by Alexa Fluor 594-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG(H+L) antibody. Each figure is shown as an overlap of DifferentialInterference Contrast (DIC) and red fluorescence images. (A) ControlLNCaP cells not transfected with minicells. No red fluorescence wasobserved following staining for S. typhimurium LPS. (B) LNCaP cellstransfected with non-targeted minicells and stained after 16 hrco-incubation. Very few background red fluorescence dots were observed.(C) LNCaP cells transfected with targeted minicells and stained after 16hrs. Most cells showed red fluorescence in the cytoplasm, revealed inthe black-and-white image as light grey. (D) LNCaP cells transfectedwith non-targeted minicells and stained after 24 hr co-incubation. Veryfew background red fluorescence dots were observed. (E) LNCaP cellstransfected with targeted minicells and stained after 24 hrs. The resultshowed intense red fluorescence in the cytoplasm of most cells (lightgrey in the image), (F) Same as (E) but at a higher magnification toshow a single transfected cell. Almost all the cytoplasm fluoresced red(light grey). Scale bars are shown for each image.

FIGS. 2A-2E shows efficient internalization of EGF receptor-targetedrecombinant minicells, versus non-targeted minicells, into human breastcancer MDA-MB-468 cells. The procedures were performed as described inExample 2 and the results were visualized by confocal microscopy.Immunofluorescence staining was performed for all shown images withanti-S. typhimurium LPS specific monoclonal antibody, followed by AlexaFluor 594-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (H+L) antibody. Each image isshown as an overlap of DIC and red fluorescence images. (A) ControlMDA-MB-468 cells not transfected with minicells. No red fluorescence wasobserved following staining for S. typhimurium LPS. (B) MDA-MB-468 cellstransfected with non-targeted minicells and stained after 24 hrco-incubation. Very few background red fluorescence dots were observed.(C) MDA-MB-468 cells transfected with targeted minicells and stainedafter 24 hrs. Most cells showed red fluorescence on the surface and somein the cytoplasm (light grey area in the black-white image). (D) Same as(C) but at a higher magnification to reveal a single cell. The resultwas the same as for (C). (E) Same as (D) except cells were stained after36 hrs. The result showed intense red fluorescence in the cytoplasm ofmost cells (light grey in the image). Scale bars are shown for eachimage.

FIGS. 3A-3E shows efficient internalization of Her2/neureceptor-targeted recombinant minicells, versus non-targeted minicells,into human ovarian cancer SKOV-3 cells. The procedures were performed asdescribed in Example 3 and the results were visualized by confocalmicroscopy. Immunofluorescence staining was performed for all shownimages with anti-S. typhimurium LPS specific monoclonal antibody,followed by Alexa Fluor 594-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (H+L)antibody. Each image is shown as an overlap of DIC and red fluorescenceimages. (A) Control SKOV-3 cells not transfected with minicells. No redfluorescence was observed following staining for S. typhimurium LPS. (B)SKOV-3 cells transfected with non-targeted minicells and stained after36 hr co-incubation. Very few background red fluorescence dots wereobserved. (C) SKOV-3 cells transfected with targeted minicells andstained after 36 hrs. Most cells showed red fluorescence in thecytoplasm (light grey area in the black-white image). (D) Same as (C)but at a higher magnification. The result was the same as for (C). (E)Same as (C) but higher magnification to show a few cells. The resultshowed intense red fluorescence in the cytoplasm of most cells (lightgrey in the image). Scale bars are shown for each image.

FIGS. 4A-4B shows the efficiency of gene delivery to human breast cancer(MDA-MB-468) cells using EGFR-targeted minicells carrying a plasmidencoding the viral Hepatitis B Surface antigen. (A) Flow Cytometryresults showing fluorescence intensity of cells treated with (1)anti-HBsAg MAb followed by Phycoerythrin (PE)-conjugated secondaryantibody (anti-mouse IgG), (ii) non-targeted minicells followed byanti-HBsAg MAb and PE-conjugated anti-mouse IgG MAb, (iii)non-specifically targeted minicells followed by anti-HBsAg MAb andPE-conjugated anti-mouse IgG MAb, and (iv) EGFR-targeted minicellsfollowed by anti-HBsAg MAb and PE-conjugated anti-mouse IgG MAb. (B)Confocal microscopy results showing efficient gene delivery andrecombinant HBsAg expression in MDA-MB-468 cells following transfectionwith EGFR-targeted minicells_(HBsAg) and iii). The intense intracellularred fluorescence (shows as light grey in black and white image) is therecombinant HBsAg protein revealed with anti-HBsAg MAb followed by AlexaFluor 594-conjugated anti-mouse IgG MAb. Control cells (1) that weretransfected with non-specifically targeted minicells_(HBsAg) showed onlya couple of background red fluorescence dots.

FIG. 5 shows treatment of human breast cancer xenografts in nude micevia targeted recombinant minicells. Breast cancer xenografts wereestablished in nude mice (see example 5) and treated intratumorally withtargeted recombinant minicells carrying plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble.(Group 1, control) tumors did not receive any treatment; (Group 2,control) tumors were treated with non-targeted recombinant minicells[M-HSVtk] followed by 2 doses of GCV; (Group 3, control) tumors weretreated with targeted recombinant minicells [TM-HSVtk]; (Group 4,control) tumors were treated with the bispecific antibody (BsAb; anti-S.typhimurium LPS/anti-human EGF receptor specificities), followed by 2doses of GCV; (Group 5, experimental) tumors were treated with targetedrecombinant minicells [TM-HSVtk] followed by one dose of GCV; (Group 6,experimental) tumors were treated with targeted recombinant minicells[TM-HSVtk] followed by 2 doses of GCV. Below the x-axis are shown thedays on which various treatments were given to specific groups.

FIG. 6 shows treatment of human breast cancer xenografts in nude micevia recombinant minicells targeted to an over-expressed EGF receptor.Breast cancer xenografts were established in nude mice (see example 6)and treated intravenously with targeted recombinant minicells carryingplasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble. Tumor xenografts were treated as follows:(Group 1, control) no treatment; (Group 2, control) non-targetedrecombinant minicells [non-T-M_(HSVtk)] followed by 2 doses of GCV,(Group 3, control) non-targeted recombinant minicells [non-T-M_(HSVtk)],(Group 4, control) bispecific antibody (BsAb; anti-S. typhimuriumLPS/anti-human EGF receptor specificities), followed by 2 doses of GCV,(Group 5, control) targeted recombinant minicells [T-M_(HSVtk)], (Group6, experimental) 10⁸ targeted recombinant minicells [T-M_(HSVtk)]followed by 2 doses of GCV, and (Group 7, experimental) 10⁹ targetedrecombinant minicells [T-M_(HSVtk)] followed by 2 doses of GCV. Belowthe x-axis are shown the days on which various treatments were given tospecific groups. Closed triangles indicate minicell or antibodytreatments and open triangles indicate GCV treatments.

FIG. 7 shows treatment of human breast cancer xenografts in nude micevia recombinant minicells targeted to an under-expressed HER2/neureceptor. Breast cancer xenografts were established in nude mice (seeexample 5) and treated intravenously with targeted recombinant minicellscarrying plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble. Group 8 mice were injectedintratumoraly with the recombinant minicells. Tumor xenografts weretreated as follows: (Group 1, control) no treatment, (Group 2, control)non-targeted recombinant minicells [non-T-M_(HSVtk)] followed by 2 dosesof GCV, (Group 3, control) non-targeted recombinant minicells[non-T-M_(HSVtk)], (Group 4, control) bispecific antibody (BsAb; anti-S.typhimurium LPS/anti-human HER2/neu receptor specificities), followed by2 doses of GCV, (Group 5, control) targeted recombinant minicells[T-M_(HSVtk)], (Group 6, experimental) 10⁸ targeted recombinantminicells [T-M_(HSVtk)] followed by 2 doses of GCV, (Group 7,experimental) 10⁹ targeted recombinant minicells [T-M_(HSVtk)] followedby 2 doses of GCV, and (Group 8, experimental) intratumoral injection of10⁹ targeted recombinant minicells [T-M_(HSVtk)] followed by 2 doses ofGCV. Below the x-axis are shown the days on which various treatmentswere given to specific groups. Closed triangles indicate minicell orantibody treatments and open triangles indicate GCV treatments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present inventors have discovered that bispecific ligands can beemployed to target bacterial minicell vectors to non-phagocyticmammalian host cells. Such host cells normally are resistant to adhesionand endocytosis of minicells in vivo, yet can be made receptive tominicell delivery vector binding and internalization with the aid of abispecific ligand.

Additionally, the inventors have discovered that the internalizedminicells are degraded sufficiently to release recombinant plasmid DNA.This is surprising because non-phagocytic mammalian cells inherently donot carry aggressive intracellular compartments like phagolysosomes,which predominantly exist in cells of the immune system such asphagocytic macrophages.

As an additional surprise, the inventors also discovered that bacterialminicells can effect recombinant plasmid escape from the late-endosomeof non-phagocytic cells. This is unexpected because minicells arenon-living and devoid of the parent bacterial chromosome that encodeslate-endosomal and phagosomal membrane-lysing proteins. Indeed, it hadbeen commonly accepted that only live facultative intracellularbacterial pathogens designed to lyse the lysosomal membrane and releaseDNA intracellularly can deliver genes to non-professional phagocytes(reviewed recently by Grillot-Courvalin et al., 2002). For example,Listeria monocytogenes expresses a pore-forming cytolysin, ListeriolysinO (chromosomally encoded by the hly gene), that is thought to play amajor role in lysing the endosomal and phagosomal membrane, therebyallowing recombinant DNA to enter an infected cell cytoplasm. Similarly,Shigella flexneri also is thought to escape the phagocytic vacuole bylysing the phagosomal membrane.

The inventors further have established that effective minicell-mediatedrecombinant gene delivery to the nucleus of non-phagocytic cells relatesto the number of plasmid copies carried by a minicell. Thus, minicellscarrying a high-copy number plasmids (over 60 plasmid copies perminicell) effect efficient gene delivery to non-phagocytic cells,whereas minicells carrying medium-copy (11 to 60 per minicell) orlow-copy (1 to 10 per minicell) number plasmids are less effective.

Additionally, the inventors have established that efficiency of genedelivery relates to the number of minicells that are endocytosed withinendosomes. Accordingly, non-phagocytic target cells that carry highlyexpressed receptors on the cell surface, such as EGF receptor on thesurface of some human breast cancer cells, and to which the bispecificligand was targeted, show more minicells engulfed within each endosome,often more than 10, resulting in highly efficient recombinant genedelivery to the cell nucleus. These results suggest that the chances forescape of recombinant DNA from late endosomes are increased when therecombinant DNA load within an endosome is high enough to compensate forlosses through degradation within the endosome. The results also showthat effective gene delivery may be achieved by exploiting mammaliancell surface receptors that are over-expressed on the cell surface,thereby enabling the endocytosis of multiple minicells within individualendosomes.

In accordance with the foregoing discoveries, the invention broadens thespectrum of diseases amenable to gene therapy using minicell vectors, byenhancing the minicell transfection efficiency in target cells ortissues that normally are refractory to minicell adhesion, endocytosisand gene delivery. The ability to target minicells also provides a saferand more flexible system for gene therapy.

In one aspect, therefore, the invention provides a targeted genedelivery method that comprises bringing bispecific ligands into contactwith (a) bacterially derived minicells that contain a therapeuticnucleic acid sequence and (b) non-phagocytic mammalian cells. Thebispecific ligands, having specificity for both minicell and mammaliancell components, cause the minicells to bind to the mammalian cells,such that the minicells are engulfed by the mammalian cells, which thenproduce an expression product of the therapeutic nucleic acid sequence.

The inventors found that this method is broadly applicable to a range ofnon-phagocytic mammalian cells that normally are refractory to specificadhesion and endocytosis of minicells. For example, bispecific antibodyligands with anti-O-polysaccharide specificity on one arm and anti-HER2receptor, anti-EGF receptor or anti-androgen receptor specificity on theother arm efficiently bound minicells to the respective receptors on arange of non-phagocytic cells. These cells included lung, ovarian,brain, breast, prostate and skin cancer cells. Moreover, the efficientbinding preceded rapid endocytosis of the minicells by each of thenon-phagocytic cells.

The inventors' discovery is surprising because it previously was thoughtthat only “professional” phagocytes, such as macrophages andneutrophils, can endocytose large macromolecular particles likebacterial cells, which are 600 nm and larger. Conversely, it was thoughtthat non-phagocytic mammalian cells can endocytose only small,non-living macromolecular particles such as liposomes, which are 150-400nm, and viruses, which are on the order of 65-80 nm in size. See Bondocand Fitzpatrick, 1998. Bacterially derived intact minicells used in theinventors' studies were approximately 400 nm in diameter.

The inventors also found that recombinant DNA carried by minicells canbe expressed by non-phagocytic mammalian host cells. The minicells, onceendocytosed, subsequently become degraded in late endosomes. Somerecombinant DNA carried by the minicells, however, escapes the endosomalmembranes and is transported to the mammalian cell nucleus, permittinggene expression. This discovery is surprising because it previously wasthought that only live facultative intracellular pathogens carryvirulence proteins capable of endosomal membrane escape and genedelivery. See Grillot-Courvalin et al., 2002. Non-living bacteria orbacterially derived minicells were not expected to express these in vivoinduced virulence proteins and, hence, were expected to be completelydegraded within endosomes, with no possibility for endosomal escape byany recombinant DNA.

The invention therefore provides novel methods that extend the range ofmammalian cells amenable to gene therapy via bacterially derivedminicells. These methods may be performed both in vitro and in vivo.

Ligands useful in the invention include any agent that binds to asurface component on a target cell and to a surface component on aminicell. Preferably, the surface component on a target cell is areceptor, especially a receptor capable of mediating endocytosis. Theligands may comprise a polypeptide and/or carbohydrate component.Antibodies are preferred ligands. For example, a bispecific antibodythat carries dual specificities for a surface component on bacteriallyderived intact minicells and for a surface component on target mammaliancells, can be used to efficiently target the minicells to the targetmammalian cells in vitro and in vivo. Useful ligands also includereceptors, enzymes, binding peptides, fusion/chimeric proteins and smallmolecules.

The selection of a particular ligand is made on two primary bases: (i)specific binding to one or more domains on the surface of intactminicells and (ii) specific binding to one or more domains on thesurface of the target cells. Thus, ligands preferably have a first armthat carries specificity for a bacterially derived intact minicellsurface structure and a second arm that carries specificity for anon-phagocytic mammalian cell surface structure. Each of the first andsecond arms may be multivalent. Preferably, each arm is monospecific,even if multivalent.

For binding to bacterially derived minicells, it is desirable for onearm of the ligand to be specific for the O-polysaccharide component of alipopolysaccharide found on the parent bacterial cell. Other minicellsurface structures that can be exploited for ligand binding include cellsurface-exposed polypeptides and carbohydrates on outer membranes,pilli, fimbrae and flagella.

For binding to target cells, one arm of the ligand is specific for asurface component of a non-phagocytic mammalian cell. Such componentsinclude cell surface proteins, peptides and carbohydrates, whethercharacterized or uncharacterized. Cell surface receptors, especiallythose capable of activating receptor-mediated endocytosis, are desirablecell surface components for targeting.

By way of example, one may target tumor cells, metastatic cells,vasculature cells, such as endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells,lung cells, kidney cells, blood cells, bone marrow cells, brain cells,liver cells, and so forth, or precursors of any selected cell byselecting a ligand that specifically binds a cell surface receptor motifon the desired cells. Examples of cell surface receptors includecarcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), which is overexpressed in most colon,rectum, breast, lung, pancreas and gastrointestinal tract carcinomas(Marshall, 2003); heregulin receptors (HER-2, neu or c-erbB-2), which isfrequently overexpressed in breast, ovarian, colon, lung, prostate andcervical cancers (Hung et al., 2000); epidermal growth factor receptor(EGFR), which is highly expressed in a range of solid tumors includingthose of the breast, head and neck, non-small cell lung and prostate(Salomon et al., 1995); asialoglycoprotein receptor (Stockert, 1995);transferrin receptor (Singh, 1999); serpin enzyme complex receptor,which is expressed on hepatocytes (Ziady et al., 1997); fibroblastgrowth factor receptor (FGFR), which is overexpressed on pancreaticductal adenocarcinoma cells (Kleeff et al., 2002); vascular endothelialgrowth factor receptor (VEGFR), for anti-angiogenesis gene therapy(Becker et al., 2002 and Hoshida et al., 2002); folate receptor, whichis selectively overexpressed in 90% of nonmucinous ovarian carcinomas(Gosselin and Lee, 2002); cell surface glycocalyx (Batra et al., 1994);carbohydrate receptors (Thurnher et al., 1994); and polymericimmunoglobulin receptor, which is useful for gene delivery torespiratory epithelial cells and attractive for treatment of lungdiseases such as Cystic Fibrosis (Kaetzel et al., 1997).

Preferred ligands comprise antibodies and/or antibody derivatives. Asused herein, the term “antibody” encompasses an immunoglobulin moleculeobtained by in vitro or in vivo generation of an immunogenic response.The term “antibody” includes polyclonal, monospecific and monoclonalantibodies, as well as antibody derivatives, such as single-chainantibody fragments (scFv). Antibodies and antibody derivatives useful inthe present invention also may be obtained by recombinant DNAtechniques.

Wild type antibodies have four polypeptide chains, two identical heavychains and two identical light chains. Both types of polypeptide chainshave constant regions, which do not vary or vary minimally amongantibodies of the same class, and variable regions. Variable regions areunique to a particular antibody and comprise an antigen binding domainthat recognizes a specific epitope. The regions of the antigen bindingdomain that are most directly involved in antibody binding are“complementarity-determining regions” (CDRs).

The term “antibody” also encompasses derivatives of antibodies, such asantibody fragments that retain the ability to specifically bind toantigens. Such antibody fragments include Fab fragments (a fragment thatcontains the antigen-binding domain and comprises a light chain and partof a heavy chain bridged by a disulfide bond), Fab′ (an antibodyfragment containing a single antigen-binding domain comprising a Fab andan additional portion of the heavy chain through the hinge region,F(ab′)2 (two Fab′ molecules joined by interchain disulfide bonds in thehinge regions of the heavy chains), a bispecific Fab (a Fab moleculehaving two antigen binding domains, each of which may be directed to adifferent epitope), and an scFv (the variable, antigen-bindingdeterminative region of a single light and heavy chain of an antibodylinked together by a chain of amino acids.)

When antibodies, including antibody fragments, constitute part or all ofthe ligands, they preferably are of human origin or are modified to besuitable for use in humans. So-called “humanized antibodies” are wellknown in the art. See, e.g., Osbourn et al., 2003. They have beenmodified by genetic manipulation and/or in vitro treatment to reducetheir antigenicity in a human. Methods for humanizing antibodies aredescribed, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No. 6,639,055, No. 5,585,089, and No.5,530,101. In the simplest case, humanized antibodies are formed bygrafting the antigen-binding loops, known as complementarity-determiningregions (CDRs), from a mouse mAb into a human IgG. See Jones et al.,1986; Riechmann et al., 1988; and Verhoeyen et al., 1988. The generationof high-affinity humanized antibodies, however, generally requires thetransfer of one or more additional residues from the so-called frameworkregions (FRs) of the mouse parent mAb. Several variants of thehumanization technology also have been developed. See Vaughan et al.,1998.

Human antibodies, rather than “humanized antibodies,” also may beemployed in the invention. They have high affinity for their respectiveantigens and are routinely obtained from very large, single-chainvariable fragments (scFvs) or Fab phage display libraries. See Griffithset al., 1994; Vaughan et al., 1996; Sheets et al., 1998; de Haard etal., 1999; and Knappik et al., 2000.

Useful ligands also include bispecific single chain antibodies, whichtypically are recombinant polypeptides consisting of a variable lightchain portion covalently attached through a linker molecule to acorresponding variable heavy chain portion. See U.S. Pat. Nos.5,455,030; 5,260,203 and 4,496,778. Bispecific antibodies also can bemade by other methods. For example, chemical heteroconjugates can becreated by chemically linking intact antibodies or antibody fragments ofdifferent specificities. See Karpovsky et al., 1984. suchheteroconjugates are difficult to make in a reproducible manner,however, and are at least twice as large as normal monoclonalantibodies. Bispecific antibodies also can be created by disulfideexchange, which involves enzymatic cleavage and reassociation of theantibody fragments. See Glennie et al., 1987.

Because Fab and scFv fragments are monovalent they often have lowaffinity for target structures. Therefore, preferred ligands made fromthese components are engineered into dimeric, trimeric or tetramericconjugates to increase functional affinity. See Tomlinson and Holliger,2000; Carter, 2001; Hudson and Souriau, 2001; and Todorovska et al.,2001. Such conjugate structures may be created by chemical and/orgenetic cross-links.

Bispecific ligands of the invention preferably are monospecific at eachend, i.e., specific for a single component on minicells at one end andspecific for a single component on target cells at the other end. Theligands may be multivalent at one or both ends, for example, in the formof so-called diabodies, triabodies and tetrabodies. See Hudson andSouriau, 2003. A diabody is a bivalent dimer formed by a non-covalentassociation of two scFvs, which yields two Fv binding sites. Likewise, atriabody results from the formation of a trivalent trimer of threescFvs, yielding three binding sites, and a tetrabody results from theformation of a tetravalent tetramer of four scFvs, yielding four bindingsites.

Several humanized, human, and mouse monoclonal antibodies and fragmentsthereof that have specificity for receptors on mammalian cells have beenapproved for human therapeutic use, and the list is growing rapidly. SeeHudson and Souriau, 2003. An example of such an antibody that can beused to form one arm of a bispecific ligand has specificity for HER2:Herceptin™; Trastuzumab.

Antibody variable regions also can be fused to a broad range of proteindomains. Fusion to human immunoglobulin domains such as IgG1 CH3 bothadds mass and promotes dimerization. See Hu et al., 1996. Fusion tohuman Ig hinge-Fc regions can add effector functions. Also, fusion toheterologous protein domains from multimeric proteins promotesmultimerization. For example, fusion of a short scFv to shortamphipathic helices has been used to produce miniantibodies. See Packand Pluckthun, 1992. Domains from proteins that form heterodimers, suchas fos/jun, can be used to produce bispecific molecules (Kostelny etal., 1992) and, alternately, homodimerization domains can be engineeredto form heterodimers by engineering strategies such as “knobs intoholes” (Ridgway et al., 1996). Finally, fusion protein partners can beselected that provide both multimerization as well as an additionalfunction, e.g. streptavidin. See Dubel et al., 1995.

Minicells of the invention are anucleate forms of E. coli or otherbacterial cells, engendered by a disturbance in the coordination, duringbinary fission, of cell division with DNA segregation. Prokaryoticchromosomal replication is linked to normal binary fission, whichinvolves mid-cell septum formation. In E. coli, for example, mutation ofmin genes, such as minCD, can remove the inhibition of septum formationat the cell poles during cell division, resulting in production of anormal daughter cell and an anucleate minicell. See de Boer et al.,1992; Raskin & de Boer, 1999; Hu & Lutkenhaus, 1999; Harry, 2001.Minicells are distinct from other small vesicles that are generated andreleased spontaneously in certain situations and, in contrast tominicells, are not due to specific genetic rearrangements or episomalgene expression. For practicing the present invention, it is desirablefor minicells to have intact cell walls (“intact minicells”).

In addition to min operon mutations, anucleate minicells also aregenerated following a range of other genetic rearrangements or mutationsthat affect septum formation, for example in the divIVB1 in B. subtilis.See Reeve and Cornett, 1975; Levin et al., 1992. Minicells also can beformed following a perturbation in the levels of gene expression ofproteins involved in cell division/chromosome segregation. For example,overexpression of minE leads to polar division and production ofminicells. Similarly, chromosome-less minicells may result from defectsin chromosome segregation for example the smc mutation in Bacillussubtilis (Britton et al., 1998), spoOJ deletion in B. subtilis (Iretonet al., 1994), mukB mutation in E. coli (Hiraga et al., 1989), and parCmutation in E. coli (Stewart and D'Ari, 1992). Gene products may besupplied in trans. When over-expressed from a high-copy number plasmid,for example, CafA may enhance the rate of cell division and/or inhibitchromosome partitioning after replication (Okada et al., 1994),resulting in formation of chained cells and anucleate minicells (Wachiet al., 1989; Okada et al., 1993). Minicells can be prepared from anybacterial cell of Gram-positive or Gram-negative origin.

Minicells of the invention contain a nucleic acid molecule that can betranscribed and/or translated to produce a desired product. For purposesof the present description, such nucleic acid molecules are categorizedas “therapeutic nucleic acid molecules.” In certain embodiments, thetranscription and/or translation product functions to ameliorate orotherwise treat a disease or modify a trait in a cell, tissue or organ.Ordinarily, the therapeutic nucleic acid is found on a plasmid withinthe minicells.

The therapeutic nucleic acid molecule encodes a product, such asfunctional RNA (e.g., antisense, ribozyme, siRNA or shRNA) or a peptide,polypeptide or protein, the production of which is desired. For example,the genetic material of interest can encode a hormone, receptor, enzyme,or (poly) peptide of therapeutic value. Such methods can result intransient expression of non-integrated transferred DNA, extrachromosomalreplication and expression of transferred replicons such as episomes, orintegration of transferred genetic material into the genomic DNA of hostcells.

Transcription or translation of a given therapeutic nucleic acidmolecule may be useful in treating cancer or an acquired disease, suchas AIDS, pneumonia, emphysema, or in correcting inborn errors ofmetabolism, such as cystic fibrosis. Transcription or translation of atherapeutic nucleic acid may also effect contraceptive sterilization,including contraceptive sterilization of feral animals.Allergen-mediated and infectious agent-mediated inflammatory disordersalso can be countered by administering, via the present invention, atherapeutic nucleic acid molecule that, upon expression in a patient,affects immune response(s) associated with the allergen and infectiousagent, respectively. A therapeutic nucleic acid molecule also may havean expression product, or there may be a downstream product ofpost-translational modification of the expression product, that reducesthe immunologic sequalae related to transplantation or that helpsfacilitate tissue growth and regeneration.

A therapeutic nucleic acid molecule may be the normal counterpart of agene that expresses a protein that functions abnormally or that ispresent in abnormal levels in a disease state, as is the case, forexample, with the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator incystic fibrosis (Kerem et al., 1989; Riordan et al., 1989; Rommens etal., 1989), with β-globin in sickle-cell anemia, and with any ofα-globin, β-globin and γ-globin in thalassemia. The therapeutic nucleicacid molecule can have an antisense RNA transcript or small interferingRNA, as mentioned above. Thus, an excess production of α-globin overβ-globin which characterizes β-thalassemia can be ameliorated by genetherapy, in accordance with the present invention, using an intactminicell engineered to contain a plasmid incorporating a sequence thathas an antisense RNA transcript vis-à-vis a target sequence of theα-globin mRNA.

In the treatment of cancer, a therapeutic nucleic acid molecule suitablefor use according to the present invention could have a sequence thatcorresponds to or is derived from a gene that is associated with tumorsuppression, such as the p53 gene, the retinoblastoma gene, and the geneencoding tumor necrosis factor. A wide variety of solid tumors—cancer,papillomas, and warts—should be treatable by this approach, pursuant tothe invention. Representative cancers in this regard include coloncarcinoma, prostate cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, skin cancer,liver cancer, bone cancer, ovary cancer, pancreas cancer, brain cancer,head and neck cancer, and lymphoma. Illustrative papillomas are squamouscell papilloma, choroid plexus papilloma and laryngeal papilloma.Examples of wart conditions are genital warts, plantar warts,epidermodysplasia verruciformis, and malignant warts.

A therapeutic nucleic acid molecule for the present invention also cancomprise a DNA segment coding for an enzyme that converts an inactiveprodrug into one or more cytotoxic metabolites so that, upon in vivointroduction of the prodrug, the target cell in effect is compelled,perhaps with neighboring cells as well, to commit suicide. Preclinicaland clinical applications of such a “suicide gene,” which can be ofnon-human origin or human origin, are reviewed by Spencer (2000),Shangara et al. (2000) and Yazawa et al. (2002). Illustrative of suicidegenes of non-human origin are those that code for HSV-thymidine kinase(tk), cytosine deaminase (CDA)+uracil phophoribosytransferase,xanthine-guanine phophoribosyl-transferase (GPT), nitroreductase (NTR),purine nucleoside phophrylase (PNP, DeoD), cytochrome P450 (CYP4B1),carboxypeptidase G2 (CPG2), and D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO),respectively. Human-origin suicide genes are exemplified by genes thatencode carboxypeptidase A1 (CPA), deoxycytidine kinase (dCK), cytochromeP450 (CYP2B1,6), LNGFR/FKBP/Fas, FKBP/Caspases, and ER/p53,respectively.

A suicide-gene therapy could be applied to the treatment of AIDS. Thisstrategy has been tested with suicide vectors that express a toxic geneproduct as soon as treated mammalian cells become infected by HIV-1.These vectors use the HIV-1 regulatory elements, Tat and/or Rev, toinduce the expression of a toxic gene such as α-diphtheria toxin,cytosine deaminase, or interferon-a2 after infection by HIV-1. SeeCuriel et al., 1993; Dinges et al., 1995; Harrison et al., 1992a;Harrison et al., 1992b; Ragheb et al., 1999.

The therapeutic nucleic acid of the invention typically is contained ona plasmid within the minicell. The plasmid also may contain anadditional nucleic acid segment that functions as a regulatory element,such as a promoter, a terminator, an enhancer or a signal sequence, andthat is operably linked to the therapeutic nucleic acid segment. Asuitable promoter can be tissue-specific or even tumor-specific, as thetherapeutic context dictates.

A promoter is “tissue-specific” when it is activated preferentially in agiven tissue and, hence, is effective in driving expression, in thetarget tissue, of an operably linked structural sequence. The categoryof tissue-specific promoters includes, for example: thehepatocyte-specific promoter for albumin and □₁-antitrypsin,respectively; the elastase I gene control region, which is active inpancreatic acinar cells; the insulin gene control region, active inpancreatic beta cells; the mouse mammary tumor virus control region,which is active in testicular, breast, lymphoid and mast cells; themyelin basic protein gene control region, active in oligodendrocytecells in the brain; and the gonadotropic releasing hormone gene controlregion, which is active in cells of the hypothalamus. See Frain et al.(1990), Ciliberto et al. (1985), Pinkert et al., (1987), Kelsey et al.(1987), Swift et al. (1984), MacDonald (1987), Hanahan, (1985), Leder etal. (1986), Readhead et al. (1987), and Mason et al. (1986).

There also are promoters that are expressed preferentially in certaintumor cells or in tumor cells per se, and that are useful for treatingdifferent cancers in accordance with the present invention. The class ofpromoters that are specific for cancer cells is illustrated by: thetyrosinase promoter, to target melanomas; the MUC1/Df3 promoter, totarget breast carcinoma; the hybrid myoD enhancer/SV40 promoter, whichtargets expression to rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS); the carcinoembryonicantigen (CEA) promoter, which is specific for CEA-expressing cells suchas colon cancer cells, and the hexokinase type II gene promoter, totarget non-small cell lung carcinomas. See Hart (1996), Morton & Potter(1998), Kurane et al. (1998) and Katabi et al. (1999).

A signal sequence can be used, according to the present invention, toeffect secretion of an expression product or localization of anexpression product to a particular cellular compartment. Thus, atherapeutic polynucleotide molecule that is delivered via intactminicells may include a signal sequence, in proper reading frame, suchthat the expression product of interest is secreted by an engulfing cellor its progeny, thereby to influence surrounding cells, in keeping withthe chosen treatment paradigm. Illustrative signal sequences include thehaemolysin C-terminal secretion sequence, described in U.S. Pat. No.5,143,830, the BAR1 secretion sequence, disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.5,037,743, and the signal sequence portion of the zsig32 polypeptide,described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,025,197.

A plasmid within a minicell of the invention also may contain a reporterelement. A reporter element confers on its recombinant host a readilydetectable phenotype or characteristic, typically by encoding apolypeptide, not otherwise produced by the host, that can be detected,upon expression, by histological or in situ analysis, such as by in vivoimaging techniques. For example, a reporter element delivered by anintact minicell, according to the present invention, could code for aprotein that produces, in the engulfing host cell, a colorimetric orfluorometric change that is detectable by in situ analysis and that is aquantitative or semi-quantitative function of transcriptionalactivation. Illustrative of these proteins are esterases, phosphatases,proteases and other enzymes, the activity of which generates adetectable chromophore or fluorophore.

Preferred examples are E. coli β-galactosidase, which effects a colorchange via cleavage of an indigogenic substrate,indolyl-β-D-galactoside, and a luciferase, which oxidizes a long-chainaldehyde (bacterial luciferase) or a heterocyclic carboxylic acid(luciferin), with the concomitant release of light. Also useful in thiscontext is a reporter element that encodes the green fluorescent protein(GFP) of the jellyfish, Aequorea victoria, as described by Prasher etal. (1995). The field of GFP-related technology is illustrated by twopublished PCT applications, WO 095/21191 (discloses a polynucleotidesequence encoding a 238 amino-acid GFP apoprotein, containing achromophore formed from amino acids 65 through 67) and WO 095/21191(discloses a modification of the cDNA for the apopeptide of A. victoriaGFP, providing a peptide having altered fluorescent properties), and bya report of Heim et al. (1994) of a mutant GFP, characterized by a4-to-6-fold improvement in excitation amplitude.

Another type of a reporter element is associated with an expressionproduct that renders the recombinant minicell resistant to a toxin. Forinstance, the neo gene protects a host against toxic levels of theantibiotic G418, while a gene encoding dihydrofolate reductase confersresistance to methotrexate, and the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase(CAT) gene bestows resistance to chloramphenicol.

Other genes for use as a reporter element include those that cantransform a host minicell to express distinguishing cell-surfaceantigens, e.g., viral envelope proteins such as HIV gp120 or herpes gD,which are readily detectable by immunoassays.

Target cells of the invention include any cell into which an exogenousnucleic acid molecule is to be introduced. (“Introduced,” when used inreference to an exogenous nucleic acid molecule, means that the nucleicacid molecule carried within a minicell is delivered to the targetcell.) Desirable target cells are characterized by expression of a cellsurface receptor that, upon binding of a ligand, facilitatesendocytosis. Preferred target cells are non-phagocytic, meaning that thecells ordinarily do not ingest bacterial particles, and are mammalian.

Methods and compositions of the invention can be used to deliver a rangeof nucleic acid molecules, which can be cDNA as well as genomic DNA orRNA, and can be in the sense or the anti-sense orientation. The nucleicacid molecule present in a minicell, pursuant to the present invention,can take the form of a plasmid, expression vector, or other geneticconstruct, but is not genomic DNA originating from the bacterial cellthat gave rise to the minicell. Suitable for use in the presentinvention is any desired DNA or RNA sequence from a eukaryotic,prokaryotic, or synthetic source which may be placed under thetranslational and transcriptional control of a eukaryotic geneexpression promoter, or which may be expressed in the mammalian cellusing trans-activating factors from the host cell.

Methods of the invention may be performed in vivo or ex vivo. In an exvivo procedure, for example, target cells may be removed from a subject,such as by biopsy. An appropriate ligand may be selected based onknowledge of a cell surface receptor that is expressed by the targetcells. The gene(s) to be delivered to the target cells are cloned intoan appropriate episomal carrier DNA, for example a plasmid, andtransferred into parent bacterial cells from which the intact minicellsare to be derived. Processes for obtaining minicells are well known inthe art, as described in PCT/IB02/04632. Minicells carrying therecombinant DNA are then purified by procedures known in the art anddescribed in PCT/IB02/04632. The bispecific ligand is then bound to therecombinant purified minicells, for example by in vitro incubation insuitable medium, and excess ligand is washed away from the ligand-loadedminicells. The composition comprising purified intact minicells and thebispecific ligand, attached to the minicells via one arm that hasspecificity for a minicell surface component, is then brought intocontact with target cells either in vitro, for example, in tissueculture (as described in Example 1, 2 and 3), or in vivo (as describedin example 4).

Thus, the invention includes a method for performing ex vivo genetherapy into desired non-phagocytic mammalian cells that are normallyrefractory to minicell-mediated gene therapy. Depending upon the targetcells and therapeutic nucleic acid, the present invention can be used intreatment of various conditions and diseases, to increase expression ofa desired protein, to inhibit expression or function of a gene product,and so forth. For instance, transcription or translation of a giventherapeutic nucleic acid molecule may be useful in treating cancer or anacquired disease, such as AIDS, pneumonia, emphysema, or in correctinginborn errors of metabolism, such as cystic fibrosis. Transcription ortranslation of a therapeutic nucleic acid may also effect contraceptivesterilization, including contraceptive sterilization of feral animals.Allergen-mediated and infectious agent-mediated inflammatory disordersalso can be countered by administering, via the present invention, atherapeutic nucleic acid molecule that, upon expression in a patient,affects immune response(s) associated with the allergen and infectiousagent, respectively. A therapeutic nucleic acid molecule also may havean expression product, or there may be a downstream product ofpost-translational modification of the expression product, that reducesthe immunologic sequalae related to transplantation or that helpsfacilitate tissue growth and regeneration.

The invention also relates to the transfer of nucleic acids intoselected cell types in vitro. Such transfers are useful for a variety ofpurposes, such as to create a cell that can produce large quantities ofa selected protein, which can then be harvested.

In a related aspect, the invention provides a composition of matteruseful for introducing exogenous nucleic acid molecules into targetnon-phagocytic mammalian cells with high efficiency. The compositioncomprises (i) a bacterially derived minicell and (ii) a bispecificligand. The minicell and ligand may be any of those described herein.Thus, the minicell contains a therapeutic nucleic acid molecule and thebispecific ligand preferably is capable of binding to a surfacecomponent of the minicell and to a surface component of a targetmammalian cell.

A composition consisting essentially of recombinant minicells andbispecific ligands of the present invention (that is, a composition thatincludes such minicells and ligands with other constituents that do notinterfere unduly with the DNA-delivering quality of the composition) canbe formulated in conventional manner, using one or more physiologicallyacceptable carriers or excipients. Formulations for injection may bepresented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampules or vials, or inmulti-dose containers, with or without an added preservative. Theformulation can be a solution, a suspension, or an emulsion in oily oraqueous vehicles, and may contain formulatory agents, such assuspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. A suitable solution isisotonic with the blood of the recipient and is illustrated by saline,Ringer's solution, and dextrose solution. Alternatively, compositionsmay be in lyophilized powder form, for reconstitution with a suitablevehicle, e.g., sterile, pyrogen-free water or physiological saline. Thecompositions also may be formulated as a depot preparation. Suchlong-acting formulations may be administered by implantation (forexample, subcutaneously or intramuscularly) or by intramuscularinjection.

A composition of the present invention can be administered via variousroutes and to various sites in a mammalian body, to achieve thetherapeutic effect(s) desired, either locally or systemically. Deliverymay be accomplished, for example, by oral administration, by applicationof the formulation to a body cavity, by inhalation or insufflation, orby parenteral, intramuscular, intravenous, intraportal, intrahepatic,peritoneal, subcutaneous, intratumoral, or intradermal administration.The mode and site of administration is dependent on the location of thetarget cells. For example, cystic-fibrotic cells may be efficientlytargeted by inhaled delivery of the targeted recombinant minicells.Similarly, tumor metastasis may be more efficiently treated viaintravenous delivery of targeted recombinant minicells. Primary ovariancancer may be treated via intraperitoneal delivery of targetedrecombinant minicells.

The following examples are intended to illustrate and provide a morecomplete understanding of the invention without limiting the inventionto the examples provided.

Example 1. Highly Efficient Binding and Receptor-MediatedInternalization of Bispecific Antibody-Targeted Minicells intoNon-Phagocytic Human Prostate Carcinoma Cells

This experiment demonstrates that a bispecific antibody with Fabfragments carrying anti-S. typhimurium LPS and anti-androgen receptorbinding specificities can enable binding and receptor-mediatedinternalization of S. typhimurium-derived minicells into prostatecarcinoma cells that are known to over-express the androgen receptor onthe cell surface.

S. typhimurium minCDE-mutant strain generated previously (patentapplication, PCT/IB02/04632) was transformed with recombinant plasmidpORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble (Invivogen, San Diego, Calif., USA). The plasmid isa mammalian gene expression vector that expresses the HSV1tk::Sh blefusion gene under the control of the EF-1□/eIF4g hybrid promoter. TheHSV1tk is a suicide gene from Herpes simplex serotype 1 virus (HSV1) andencodes an enzyme, thymidine kinase, that can convert prodrug guanosineanalog ganciclovir (GCV) to ganciclovir-monophosphate (GCV-MP). Thelatter is then converted to the diphosphate and triphosphate forms byendogenous kinases. GCV-triphosphate lacks the 3′ OH on the deoxyriboseas well as the bond between the 2′ and 3′ carbons which are necessaryfor DNA chain elongation. As a result, GCV-triphosphate integrationcauses premature DNA chain termination and leads to apoptosis.Expression of HSV1tk therefore sensitizes transfected mammalian cells toganciclovir and is one of the most widely used single suicide strategiesfor cancer gene therapy (Singhal and Kaiser, 1998). As a control, aplasmid was constructed where HSVtk::Sh ble gene fusion was deleted bycleaving plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble with restriction enzymes NcoI andNheI, blunt-ending the sites with T4 DNA polymerase and religating theplasmid. The NcoI and NheI sites are unique in plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Shble and flank the HSV1tk::Sh ble gene fusion. The resulting plasmiddesignated pORF5-HSV1tk- was also transformed in S. typhimuriumminCDE-mutant strain.

Recombinant minicells carrying the plasmids were purified using thegradient centrifugation/filamentation/filtration/endotoxin removalprocedure described in international patent application PCT/IB02/04632.

The bispecific antibody was constructed by linking anti-S. typhimuriumlipopolysaccharide (Biodesign, Saco, Me., USA) and anti-androgenreceptor mouse monoclonal antibodies (IgG; Abcam, Cambridge, UK) topurified recombinant protein A/G via the Fc fragments of each monoclonalantibody and in brief the procedure was as follows.

Purified recombinant protein A/G (Pierce Biotechnology, Rockford, Ill.,USA) was diluted to a final concentration of 100 μg/ml in Immunopurebinding buffer (Pierce Biotechnology) and 0.5 ml of the solution wasincubated overnight at 4° C. with a premixed solution containing 20μg/ml each of anti-S. typhimurium LPS (Research Diagnostics Inc.,Flanders, N.J., USA) and anti-human androgen receptor (Abcam, Cambridge,UK) monoclonal antibodies. The excess antibodies unbound to protein A/Gwere then removed as follows. Dynabeads® Protein G solution (Dynabeads®[2.8 μm] coated with recombinant Protein G covalently coupled to thesurface of the magnetic particles; Dynal Biotech, Oslo, Norway) wasmixed gently and 100 μl of the solution was transferred into aneppendorf centrifuge tube. The tube was placed in the Dynal MPC-S(Magnetic Particle Concentrator, type S) to immobilize the beads and thesupernatant was discarded. The beads were resuspended in 0.5 ml ofwashing solution containing 0.1M Na-phosphate buffer (pH 5.0). The beadimmobilization and washing steps were repeated three times. The solutioncontaining protein A/G-bispecific antibody complex was added to thebeads and incubated with gentle mixing at room temperature for 40 min.The tube was placed on the MPC-S stand to immobilize the beads and theprotein A/G-bispecific antibody complex was removed with a pipette. Thisstep removed the unbound excess monoclonal antibodies from the solutionand provided a solution that carried the bispecific antibody linked toprotein A/G via their Fc fragments.

10¹⁰ recombinant minicells were incubated with the proteinA/G-bispecific antibody for 1 hr at room temperature to coat theminicells with the antibody via its anti-LPS Fab region.

Prostate carcinoma cells, LNCaP (ATCC, Rockville, Md., USA) were grownto full confluency in T-75 flasks in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with10% FCS and antibiotics. The cells were passaged in T-25 flasks at 50%confluency. After overnight attachment, the culture medium was refreshedand to one flask was added 10⁷ recombinant minicells carrying plasmidpORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble (non-targeted recombinant minicells) and to anotherflask was added 10⁷ of the same minicells but carrying cell surfaceattached bispecific antibody (targeted recombinant minicells). The ratioof minicells to prostate carcinoma cells was 100:1. The transfectedcells were incubated in an incubator under 5% CO₂ and 37° C. for 16, 24and 36 hrs followed by four washes (5 ml per wash) with fresh 1×Dulbecco's medium with gentle shaking. All cells were trypsinized andthen passsaged on 13 mm coverslips in 24 well plate (each time point intriplicate), with cell numbers in sub-confluency.

The cells on coverslips were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 30 minsand blocked with 5% normal goat serum overnight followed by stainingwith anti-S. typhimurium LPS (1:200; Biodesign, Saco, Me., USA)monoclonal antibody. The antibody binding was revealed with goatanti-mouse IgG conjugated with Alexa Fluor 594 (1:1000, redfluorescence; excitation 590 nm and emission 617 nm; Molecular Probes,Eugene, Oreg., USA) and viewed by fluorescence confocal microscopy(Fluoview, Olympus America, Melville, N.Y., USA). Fluorescence andDifferential Image Contrast (DIC) images were collected and overlaid asshown in FIG. 1.

The results showed that non-targeted recombinant minicells did notspecifically adhere to or get internalized in the LNCaP prostatecarcinoma cells at any of the time points analyzed (FIGS. 1B and 1D) andcells appeared the same as control non-transfected cells. All fieldsanalyzed revealed minor background red fluorescence. In contrast, thetargeted recombinant minicells were found to strongly adhere to theLNCaP cells presumably via binding of the targeting bispecific antibodyto the cell surface androgen receptor. Additionally, at the 16 hr and 24hr incubation time points, most LNCaP cells showed intense redfluorescence within the cytoplasm of the cells (FIGS. 1C, 1E and 1F)indicating that the minicells had been internalized viareceptor-mediated endocytosis.

This result suggested that the minicells carrying surface-attachedbispecific antibody mediated highly efficient binding of the minicellsto the cell surface receptor found on a mammalian cell (androgenreceptor in the above example) and that the adherent minicells wererapidly internalized by the non-phagocytic mammalian cell (prostatecarcinoma cell in the above example).

Example 2. Highly Efficient Binding and Receptor-MediatedInternalization of Bispecific Antibody-Targeted Minicells intoNon-Phagocytic Human Breast Adenocarcinoma Cells

Example 1 demonstrated that a bispecific antibody with anti-LPS(minicell specificity) and anti-androgen receptor binding specificitycan efficiently enable strong binding to the androgen receptor on anon-phagocytic mammalian cell, the prostate carcinoma cell.Additionally, the results demonstrated that the receptor bindingtriggered receptor-mediated endocytosis of the recombinant minicells ata high efficiency. This example demonstrates that the above-observedphenomenon is generalized and that the invention and discover areapplicable to a range of different endocytosis-competent receptors, ondifferent non-phagocytic mammalian cells.

More specifically, this experiment shows that human breastadenocarcinoma cells (MDA-MB-468, ATCC; human mammary epithelial cells;non-phagocytic) can be targeted via a bispecific antibody carrying Fabfragments with anti-S. typhimurium LPS (minicell surface bindingspecificity) and anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) bindingspecificity. The cell line MDA-MB-468 cells were grown in tissue cultureas described for prostate carcinoma cells in example 1. The bispecificantibody was constructed as described in Example 1, except that theanti-androgen receptor monoclonal antibody was replaced with anti-EGFRmonoclonal antibody (Oncogene Research Products, Cambridge, Mass., USA).Targeted and non-targeted recombinant minicells were generated and usedto transfect the MDA-MB-468 cells and the cells were stained for S.typhimurium LPS (minicells) at time intervals of 16 hours, 24 hours, and36 hours as described above for prostate carcinoma cells.

The results revealed (FIG. 2) that control cells and cells treated withnon-targeted minicells exhibited only minor background red fluorescenceat all the time points (FIGS. 2A and 2B), suggesting that the minicellswere unable to adhere to and transfect the non-phagocytic mammaliancells. In contrast, the cells treated with targeted minicells exhibitedstrong red fluorescence in the cytoplasm after 24 hrs incubation and thefluorescence increased to cover more of the cytoplasm after 36 hrs(FIGS. 2C-E). This suggested that the bispecific antibody enabled thestrong binding of the minicells to the EGF receptor on the surface ofMDA-MB-468 cells and that the binding triggered receptor mediatedendocytosis of the minicells.

Example 3. Highly Efficient Binding and Receptor-MediatedInternalization of Bispecific Antibody-Targeted Minicells intoNon-Phagocytic Human Ovarian Carcinoma Cells

Examples 1 and 2 demonstrated that a bispecific antibody with anti-LPS(minicell specificity) and either anti-androgen receptor bindingspecificity or anti-EGFR specificity can efficiently enable strongbinding to the androgen receptor or EGFR on a non-phagocytic prostatecarcinoma cells and breast carcinoma cells respectively. Additionally,the results demonstrated that the receptor binding triggeredreceptor-mediated endocytosis of the recombinant minicells at a highefficiency. This example further demonstrates the general applicabilityof the invention and discovery.

Accordingly, this experiment demonstrates that human ovarian carcinomacells (SKOV-3, ATCC; epithelial cells; non-phagocytic) can be targetedvia a bispecific antibody carrying Fab fragments with anti-S.typhimurium LPS (minicell surface binding specificity) and mouseanti-human Her2/neu receptor (Serotec Inc., Raleigh, N.C., USA) bindingspecificity. SKOV-3 cells are known to overexpress the Her2 receptor(Salomon et al., 1995). The experiment was performed as described inExamples 1 and 2, and the samples were stained for anti-LPS (redfluorescence) as before.

The results (FIG. 3) were similar to those obtained in examples 1 and 2.The control SKOV-3 cells and those treated with non-targeted minicells,showed only minor background red fluorescence.

Example 4. Highly Efficient Gene Delivery to Non-Phagocytic MammalianCells Via Bispecific Antibody Mediated Targeting of RecombinantMinicells

The above experiments demonstrated highly efficient attachment ofminicells to non-phagocytic mammalian cells, e.g., human epithelialcancer cells. This example demonstrates that non-phagocytic mammaliancells have an efficient intracellular mechanism for degradingendocytosed particles that are as large as minicells (400 nm diameter).This example also shows that plasmid DNA packaged in minicells canescape the intracellular degradative processes, escape the endosomalmembranes, enter the cytoplasm, enter the cell nucleus and becomerecombinantly expressed. Indeed, minicells can efficiently deliver genesto non-phagocytic cells, indicating that applications of the inventionare useful in vitro transfection tools.

Human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-468) were incubated with controlnon-targeted, non-specifically targeted and experimental EGFR-targetedminicells carrying a plasmid that encodes the viral Hepatitis B Surfaceantigen (HbsAg; Aldevron, USA). Non-specifically targeted BsAb wasconstructed using anti-cytomegalovirus (CMV) monoclonal antibody andanti-S. typhimurium LPS Mab. At time intervals of 4 hours, 8 hours, 16hours, 24 hours and 36 hours, the cells were washed and fixed with 4%paraformaldehyde and blocked with 5% normal goat serum/2% BSA. Themembrane permeability was increased with 1% Triton X-100 in PBS andcells were treated with anti-HbsAg MAb (Aldevron, diluted in 1:100)followed by Alexa Fluor 594-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (Molecularprobes, diluted in 1:1000). The HbSAg protein expressing cells wereanalyzed by Confocal Microscopy. To determine the efficiency of genedelivery, the cells were analyzed by Flow Cytometry. For FACS analysis,the cells were treated with anti-HBsAg MAb followed by Phycoerythrin(PE)-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG instead of Alexa Fluor 594 becauseFACS analysis is more sensitive to PE compared to Alexa Fluor 594.

The results revealed that only the EGFR-targeted minicells gave a genedelivery efficiency of greater than 95% (FIG. 4Aiv). The recombinantprotein expression (cells fluorescing bright red; FIG. 4Bii-iii) wasobserved 16 hours post-transfection (FIG. 4Aiv) and at subsequent timepoints, suggesting significant levels of recombinant protein per cell.All control cells showed only background red fluorescence dots (FIG.4Bi).

These results were surprising because it was not known thatnon-phagocytic cells would carry such an efficient intracellularmechanism for degrading endocytosed particles that are as large asminicells (400 nm diameter) and that carry a rigid biological membrane.Additionally, an unexpectedly high level of efficiency (greater than95%) of gene delivery to non-phagocytic mammalian cells was observed.These results indicate that applications of the invention are useful invitro transfection tools. No currently available tools achieve such ahigh degree of specific gene delivery to non-phagocytic mammalian cells.

Example 5. Bispecific Antibody-Mediated Targeting of Minicells to HumanBreast Cancer Xenografts in Female Athymic Nude Mice

This example demonstrates that targeted recombinant minicells carrying aplasmid encoding HSVtk gene can effect regression of human breast cancercell tumor xenografts established in 6 week old female athymic nudemice.

The bispecific antibody was constructed as described in Example 1,except that instead of the anti-androgen receptor monoclonal antibody,the anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (anti-EGFR) monoclonalantibody (Oncogene Research Products, Cambridge, Mass., USA) was used.This was because the xenografted cells were human breast cancer cellsMDA-MB-468 that are known to overexpress the EGF receptor on the cellsurface. The mice were purchased from Animal Resources Centre, Perth,Wash., and all animal experiments were performed in compliance with theguide of care and use of laboratory animals and with Animal EthicsCommittee approval. The experiments were performed in the NSWAgriculture accredited small animal facility at EnGenelC Pty Ltd(Sydney, NSW, Australia). MDA-MB-468 human breast cancer cells werecultured as described in example 2 and 1.5×10⁶ cells in 50 μL serum-freemedia together with 50 μL growth factor reduced matrigel (BDBiosciences, Franklin Lakes, N.J., USA) were injected subcutaneouslybetween the shoulder blades of each mouse using a 23-guage needle. Thetumors were measured twice a week using an electronic digital caliper(Mitutoyo, Japan, precision to 0.001) and tumor volume was calculatedusing the formula, length (mm)×width² (mm)×0.5=volume (mm³). 21 dayspost-implantation the tumors reached volumes between 50 mm³ and 80 mm³,and mice were randomized to six different groups of 12 per group.

The experiment was designed as follows. Group 1 (control) received notreatment. Group 2 (control) received non-targeted recombinant minicellsthat carried plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble (designated M-HSVtk) on days21, 28 and 35. The mice also received GCV on days 25, 26, 32, 33, 39 and40, i.e., two doses of GCV on successive days. This group was designedto determine if non-targeted minicells could deliver the suicide gene tothe tumor cells and affect tumor regression following GCV treatment.Group 3 (control) was designed to determine if treatment with targetedrecombinant minicells carrying plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble in theabsence of GCV had any effect on tumor regression. Therefore, Group 3mice received targeted recombinant minicells carrying plasmidpORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble (designated TM-HSVtk) on the same days as for group2 but received no GCV treatment. Group 4 (control) was designed todetermine if the bispecific antibody in the absence of recombinantminicells had any effect on tumor regression. Therefore, these micereceived the bispecific antibody on the same days that recombinanttargeted or non-targeted minicells were given, i.e., days 21, 28 and 35.The antibody treatment was followed by GCV treatment on the same days asfor group 2. Group 5 (experimental) was designed to determine if thetargeted recombinant minicells carrying plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh blecould effectively deliver the plasmid to the xenografted tumor cells andif tumor regression could be observed following treatment of the micewith a single dose of GCV after each minicell dose. Therefore, group 5received targeted recombinant minicells on the same days as for group 3followed by GCV treatment on days 25, 33 and 39. Group 6 (experimental)was the same as group 5 but received two doses of GCV on successivedays, as for groups 2 and 4.

Mice receiving the respective minicells were injected intratumorallywith 10⁸ minicells resuspended in 30 ul of sterile physiological saline.Gene targeting experiments in vitro in MDA-MB-468 cells had revealedthat the minicell delivered plasmid expressed the HSVtk enzyme after atleast 48 hrs post-transfection with the targeted recombinant minicells.Therefore, groups 2, 4, 5 and 6 were given GCV after 3 to 4 dayspost-minicell inoculation to allow the transfected tumor xenograft cellsto sufficiently express the HSVtk enzyme to be responsive to GCV. GCVwas administered intraperitoneally at a concentration of 100 mg/kg ofmouse weight.

FIG. 5 shows the progression in tumor volume over the course of theexperiment. The results revealed that only targeted recombinantminicells (Groups 5 and 6) were able to successfully deliver the HSV1tkgene encoding plasmid to the xenografted tumor cells. The tumor volumesin these two groups did not increase in size and remained stablethroughout the course of the experiment. In contrast, the tumor volumesrapidly increased in the four control groups (Groups 1-4).Interestingly, group 2 mice also showed no evidence of tumor regression,suggesting the non-targeted recombinant minicells could not transfectthe human breast cancer cells and achieve a clinically significantoutcome. Statistical analysis of the data using One-way ANOVA showedthat experimental groups (5 and 6) were highly significant compared tothe control groups 1 to 4 (p=0.001). This result is a firstdemonstration of targeted in vivo gene delivery to non-phagocyticmammalian cells mediated by bacterially derived intact recombinantminicells. It also demonstrates a role for receptor-mediated endocytosisof the minicells in achieving highly significant gene delivery to thesenon-phagocytic mammalian cells (compare group 2 with groups 5 and 6).

The results of this experiment show the significance of the inventivecompositions and methods for targeting minicells to desired mammaliancells in vivo. The results also demonstrate the potential for clinicalapplication of targeted minicells, particularly in the development ofcancer therapeutics.

Example 6. Suicide Plasmid Carrying Minicells Targeted to Over-ExpressedEGF Receptor on Human Breast Cancer Xenografts, Effectively Regress theTumor in Nude Mice

The above-described xenograft studies were performed by intratumoral(i.t.) injection of minicells. To evaluate the potential for targetingminicells to non-phagocytic (human cancer cell) cell surface receptorsvia systemic delivery and achieving tumor stabilisation/regression invivo, another xenograft study was designed where the minicells wereinjected intravenously.

Accordingly, recombinant minicells carrying plasmid pORF5-HSV1tk::Sh ble(HSV1tk) were constructed and purified. The minicells were targeted tothe human EGFR that was shown to be over-expressed on human breastcancer cells MDA-MB-468. This was accomplished by constructing abispecific antibody with anti-human EGFR and anti-S. typhimurium LPSspecificities and attaching the BsAb to the minicell surface, asdescribed in Example 1. The xenografts were established subcutaneously(s.c.) between the shoulder blades of nude mice (n=11 per group), andthe experimental and control minicells were administered i.v. in thetail vein on the days shown (FIG. 6). Groups 2, 4, 6 and 7 also receivedGCV (i.p.) on the days shown.

The results revealed a significant stabilization/regression of theestablished tumors only in mice treated with EGFR-targetedminicells_(HSV1tk). Both minicell doses 10⁸ or 10⁹ per dose were equallyeffective, indicating that the targeting methodology is highly efficientand enhances the therapeutic index, making vector concentration less ofa limiting factor. Statistical analysis of the data using One-way ANOVAshowed that results in the experimental groups (6 and 7) were highlysignificant compared to the control groups 1 to 5 (p=0.0001). This datashowed that the minicell targeting technology was highly effective athoming the minicells to the tumor mass, even when injected at a sitedistant from the tumor. The data also showed that systemic delivery oftargeted minicells did not cause any overt signs of toxicity to themice. Throughout the study, there were no overt signs of toxicity suchas fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, weight loss or death.

Example 7. Suicide Plasmid-Carrying Minicells Targeted toUnder-Expressed HER2/Neu Receptor on Human Breast Cancer Xenografts,Effectively Regress the Tumor in Nude Mice

The above-described in vivo results indicated that minicells could beeffectively targeted to over-expressed receptors on diseased cells, suchas cancer cells. This example shows the efficacy of a minicell vectorwhen targeted to a poorly expressed receptor on the cancer cell surface.In conventional approaches targeting poorly expressed receptors is aserious hurdle to the development of antibody-based therapeutics,particularly for cancer treatment, because many cancer cells do notover-express targeted receptors. For example, the HER2/neu receptor isover-expressed in fewer than 20% of breast cancer patients.

Accordingly, a xenograft study was designed where the minicell_(HSV1tk)vector was targeted to the HER2/neu receptor that is known to be poorlyexpressed on the MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells. Experimental andcontrol groups (FIG. 7) were the same as in Example 6, except that onemore experimental group was included (G8) where the HER2/neu-targetedminicell_(HSV1tk) was injected intratumoraly. The results (FIG. 7)showed that, although the HER2/neu receptor is poorly expressed, theexperimental treatments were just as effective in achieving tumorstabilisation/regression as in the case of Example 6, where theminicell_(HSV1tk) vector was targeted to the over-expressed EGFreceptor. The same number of doses (3×) of targeted minicell_(HSV1tk)were required to achieve the result. In this experiment, once theresidual tumors began to grow between days 53 and 81, a fourth dose ofHER2/neu-targeted minicell_(HSV1tk) was administered, resulting in arapid drop in tumor volumes in groups 6 and 7. Statistical analysis ofthe data, using one-way ANOVA, showed that experimental groups (6, 7 and8) were highly significant compared to the control groups 1 to 5(p=0.0001).

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1. A targeted gene delivery method that comprises bringing bispecificligands into contact with: (a) bacterially derived minicells thatcomprise a therapeutic nucleic acid and (b) non-phagocytic mammaliancells, such that (i) said bispecific ligands cause said minicells tobind to said mammalian cells and (ii) said minicells that comprise atherapeutic nucleic acid sequence are engulfed by said mammalian cells.2. A method according to claim 1, wherein said bispecific ligandcomprises polypeptide or carbohydrate.
 3. A method according to claim 1,wherein said bispecific ligand comprises a first arm that carriesspecificity for a bacterially derived minicell surface structure and asecond arm that carries specificity for a non-phagocytic mammalian cellsurface receptor.
 4. A method according to claim 3, wherein said firstarm and said second arm are monospecific.
 5. A method according to claim3, wherein said first arm and said second arm are multivalent.
 6. Amethod according to claim 3, wherein said minicell surface structure isan O-polysaccharide component of a lipopolysaccharide on said minicellsurface.
 7. A method according to claim 3, wherein said minicell surfacestructure is a member of the group consisting of outer membraneproteins, pilli, fimbrae, flagella, and cell-surface exposedcarbohydrates.
 8. A method according to claim 3, wherein said mammaliancell surface receptor is capable of activating receptor-mediatedendocytosis of said minicell.
 9. A method according to claim 1, whereinsaid bispecific ligand comprises an antibody or antibody fragment.
 10. Amethod according to claim 1, wherein said bispecific ligand comprises ahumanized antibody.
 11. A method according to claim 1, wherein saidminicell comprises an intact cell wall.
 12. A method according to claim1, wherein said therapeutic nucleic acid comprises a suicide gene.
 13. Amethod according to claim 1, wherein said therapeutic nucleic acidencodes a normal counterpart of a gene that expresses a protein thatfunctions abnormally or is present in abnormal levels in said mammaliancells.
 14. A method according to claim 1, wherein said mammalian cellsare in vitro.
 15. A method according to claim 1, wherein said mammaliancells are in vivo.
 16. A method according to claim 1, wherein saidtherapeutic nucleic acid is contained on a plasmid.
 17. A methodaccording to claim 16, wherein said plasmid comprises a regulatoryelement.
 18. A method according to claim 16, wherein said plasmidcomprises a reporter element. 19-35. (canceled)
 36. A method accordingto claim 1, wherein the minicells are purified using a combination ofgradient centrifugation, filamentation, and/or filtration.
 37. A methodaccording to claim 1, wherein the minicells are purified to removeendotoxin.